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The smart city would become ever more complex in form, Its citee ever richer in meanings.

In one way this technological fantasy was nothing new. Aristotle wrote in the Politics that

'a city is composed of different kinds of men; similar people cannot bring a city into existence'

People are stronger together than apart; thus in wartime, Athens sheltered a diverse range of tribes who fled the countryside; it also took in exiles who then remained in the city. Though their status was ever unresolved and ambiguous, these refugees brought new ways of thinking and new crafts to the city. Aristotle was also thinking about the virtues of complexity in politics; in a diverse milieu, men (in Aristotle'stime, only men)are obliged to understand different points of view inorder to govern the city...

At MIT, I had occasion to see Stadtluft macht frei takeamong a group of young architects from Shanghai. Their home citvepitomizes the urban explosion occurring throughout the develeping world today, a place expanding economically at a headlong rat, drawing young people from all over China into its orbit. Although my band of Shanghainese went home to their vilages or small townseach New Year, in the city they lett their local outlooks and habitsbehind. Some of the young male architects came out as gay; youngfemale architects delayed or refused to have a child-both sexes causing grief to those at home. When I introduced my charges to Stadtitmacht frei, they translated the phrase into Mandarin as ' wearing deferent hats.

The superficial words convey a deep truth, that when life is open, it ...

Popper abhorred eco-nomic monopolies just as he feared totalitarian states. Both make thesame seductive promise: life can be made simpler, clearer, more usertriendly, as we would now say about technology, for example, if onpeople would submit to a regime which does the organizing You milnow what you are about. Because the rules of your experencewill be laid out for you. What you gain in clarity, however, you lose in freedom. Your experience will become clear and closed. Long before Popper, the great Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt framed the same threat by warning that modern life would be ruled by " brutal simplifiers", which to him meant the seductive simplicities of natioalism. For both Popper and Burckhardt, those catchphrases of open experence -complex, ambiguous, uncertain'-imply r...

During the last century, both Nazism and state comunism turned Man as Maker into an obscene ideological weaponArbeit macht Frei("Work is freedom)was written over the entranceto concentration camps. Today, while these totalitarian horrors have gone, new forms of short-term, episodic labour, plus the advance of robotic labour, have denied to large numbers of people pride in themselves as workers

Rudofsky argued that the making of places had no need of self-conscious artiness, citing as examples elegantly shaped ellipticalgranaries in the Central African bush, or finely detailed towers in Iranbuilt to attract pigeons whose droppings accumulated and so transformed the towers into fertilizer plants. Which is what he meant by architecture without architects: the primacy of the cite; making derive from dwelling. The care with which the granaries, towers and whitewashed streets are tended show that people have taken ownership of these places. When we say about a neighbourhood that we feel at home there, I think we are asserting this kind of agency -the physical evironment seems to emanate from how we dwell and who we are

Rudofsky appealed even to seasoned urbanists like Gordon Culan,who thought more technically about how the lessons of experience should guide physical form. For instance, Cullen studied how changes in building atgrade level(the ground plane)appeared in cities built tnext to seas or rivers; below-grade spaces gradually emerge to accommodate loading and unloading, as in the quays of Paris, or abov-gradein the raised squares of of Agde built up to avoid flooding, the heigh callibrate by year-after-year experience. In both cases, use graually established a precise visual scale. The professional should follow tht scale bred of experience, rather than arbitrarily elevating spaces or gouging them out just because the grading looks good on paper

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