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In truth, human languages are without exception fully expressive, complete, and logical, as much as they were two hundred or two thousand years ago.

Other hypotheses suggested ... that language originated from song as an expressive rather than a communicative need.

There are no “primitive” languages—all languages are equally complex and equally capable of expressing any idea. The vocabulary of any lan- guage can be expanded to include new words for new concepts.

It appears that the “un-Rule” is most productive for adjectives that are derived from verbs, such as unenlightened, unsimplified, uncharacterized, unauthorized, undistinguished, and so on. It also appears that most acceptable un- words have polysyllabic bases, and while we have unfit, uncool, unread, and unclean, many of the unacceptable -un forms have monosyllabic stems such as *unbig, *ungreat, *unred, *unsad, *unsmall, *untall.

one cannot always know the meaning of the words derived from free and derivational morphemes by knowing the morphemes themselves. The following un- forms have unpredictable meanings:

unloosen “loosen, let loose”

unrip “rip, undo by ripping”

undo “reverse doing”

untread “go back through in the same steps”

unearth “dig up”

unfrock “deprive (a cleric) of ecc...

The plural of geek, when it was a new word in English, was geeks, not *geeken, although we are advised that some geeks wanted the plural of fax to be *faxen, like oxen, when fax entered the language as a shortened form of facsimile.

peddle was derived from peddler on the mistaken assumption that the -er was the agentive suffix. Such words are called back-formations. The verbs hawk, stoke, swindle, and edit all came into the language as back-formations—of hawker, stoker, swindler, and editor. Pea was derived from a singular word, pease, by speakers who thought pease was a plural.

Some word creation comes from deliberately miscast back-formations. The word bikini comes from the Bikini atoll of the Marshall Islands. Because the first syllable bi- is a morpheme meaning “two” in words like bicycle, some clever person called a topless bathing suit a monokini. Historically, a number of new words have entered the English lexicon in this way. Based on analogy with such pairs as act/action, exempt/exemption, and revise/revisio...

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